We are looking at the processes used to obtain knowledge. People possess rational minds that store observations and form conclusions. We compare these observations with others through the medium of language. It follows that our language will contain a structure that helps us check whether these observations are accurate and if our comparisons are correct. How we do this has been an important subject for all of mankind’s existence. Those who have the right motives use the principles from studies like this for the advancement of civilization. Unfortunately there are people who use language as a means to deceive others for their own selfish means. This makes it an important subject to master for our own defense and to help us be better at expressing our own ideas. Having the ability to recognize the difference between selfish nonsense and good ideas is critical for those who want to improve the world around them.

As commonalities increase it takes less precision in language to say what one means. People that share common experiences don’t have to work as hard to communicate. These common experiences can come from upbringing, community, occupation and marriage. Beyond common experiences, some people share a common demeanor, outlook on life, interests and passions. There is a certain closeness that comes when these commonalities are made and discovered. When we use the word close, we are talking about how close experiences and passions match. We often say that a person “gets’ us when this occurs. The more distance there is the more precise the language has to be. When there is a conflict, one has to chose one’s words carefully. Science has to work in precise terms since its purpose is to eliminate all doubt. There is also a certain precision to making laws and the closer the citizens are in experiences the easier it is to interpret these laws. The further the interests become, the harder it is to have the same understanding concerning the laws that are made. It is best for detailed applications to come from local interests where a larger government can only address broad subjects.

In order to express observations and comparisons one has to begin with a subject. Although there are confusing philosophical terms, we can simplify things by using common words used in grammar. The English word “noun” is used to describe a person, place, or a thing. The noun names we apply will always contain a primary entity such as a certain chair or a certain person, Mike. Broader terms can used to include a number of things that are alike such as the word furniture or animal. When we refer to a primary noun, it will have it’s own properties. We can say that nouns are the labels we put on real things. They describe reality. There are no opposites or degrees regarding the fact that something exists. Either it is really there or it isn’t. Things don’t partially exist. An actual chair either exists or it doesn’t. An actual individual is either that particular individual or he isn’t. There is no true and false in an object. A primary entity has qualities that are unique to itself. We use secondary terms to imply all that have similar traits. The word People implies all humans and animal will imply other warm blooded creatures. But these broad terms always imply specific entities, a primary entity that has it’s own unique properties.

The words use to describe the properties of an entity fall under ten categories and we will address these next time.

Delightful combinations can be made in our minds with the things that we experience and common characteristics that are observed. A person can also make an ordered accounting of what things belong to what classifications. In a library, it makes finding books easier. Vehicles will belong to certain manufacturers and are classified according to their size, speed, power and quality. Words are used such as genre and species for living things. These words can also be applied loosely to music and art. In modern times we know quite a few more particulars about what is observed, therefore their characteristics, combinations and relationships have increased also. The question that arises when we look at common characteristics is their origins. A person might ask who the parents are when a youth is exceptional or a criminal. A vehicle will have a VIN number that gives the factory of origin as do most things that are manufactured. They will have commonalities due to their origins. Ancient people saw common traits they admired and ascribed the origin of the exceptional ones to gods. Polytheistic religions became common since certain traits were ascribed to certain Gods. The Greeks perfected this using mythology written in an orderly fashion. Monotheistic religions ascribe the origin of all these traits to one God.

A recent story of origins is one about the sudden appearance of a fully functioning single cell through a zap of electricity. This cell instantly had the ability to reproduce itself too. And then after billions of years passed, it kept picking up better traits each time it reproduced. Soon there were two that came up with the idea that they could exchange DNA and the story continues with pairs reproducing. Not only is this a nonsensical story when compared to what we know, but it doesn’t really have much romance or goodness either. At the time this story came about, there was a fascination with microscopes and living single-celled bacteria and organisms. It is common for every generation to use these kind of associations to explain things they cannot find answers to. Today the word “theory” is used for these associations instead of the word “folklore” to make the believers feel grounded in science. When one leaves behind all the folklore about origins that use material things such as mountains, and celestial objects such as the sun and the moon, all that remains viable is a super being or god that set the stage for all living things.

Cultures always have their heroes and gods. Greek mythology is enjoyable to read as are Viking legends. We make associations between things we know to be true and how we wish things were. Categories are made where behaviors that produce good things can be called virtues and those that are detrimental can be called vices. We desire to make a world that contains only virtue and love for one another. As long as there is vice and wickedness, we see that those who want a good life have to defend it. We also beg for redemption for the shortcomings within ourselves. A belief that would have the most viability when it is compared to what we know about love and virtue would follow parallels to what is seen as ultimate in virtue and love. The the all-encompassing love of mothers and fathers toward their own children is something a good story should contain. It would start with a God who is a father who loves us as his own children and wants to redeem us despite our shortcomings. A mother who bears a son with a certain sadness about what he will go through to willingly fulfill his father’s wish to eliminate guilt and to give everyone access to his love eternally. A story where virtue and love win the day. A belief system to be formed that is based in giving rather than earning merit. The best way to start this story would be to introduce into this frail world the gift of a son who is human and yet God.

We perceive things with our senses, sort then into categories and put names on them. In a community, people share these common words among themselves and we call it language. The things that are tangible or made of matter are categorized by traits. Good and bad doesn’t enter the picture at first since our observations are confined to the traits and what category of being the subject belongs to. That’s where we get the saying “whatever is, is”. The concept of good and evil doesn’t apply since objects are simply made of matter. There are also common words used to describe these things such as colors and lengths. The description of color “blue” isn’t good or bad in itself. It is simply a word that brings up a common understanding of the color in everyone’s minds. Actions that describe movement of objects are the same way. The words we use for actions do not contain good or bad. They are simply descriptions of actions such as running. When they are by themselves, objects, actions, and words that describe are harmless and inert when it comes to finding truth.

It is when these concepts are combined that judgment comes into play. Is it really blue? How fast is the car going? A car can be neither true or false but the things we say about them can be. The same goes for people. They exist and are valuable and no one can make any more or less of that truth. Once actions and descriptions are added and can be understood, we make determinations if the behavior is good or bad or if what is being said is true or false. When we get away from determining if descriptions are accurate and allow things to affect our own sense of being, we call it, “taking it personal”. To be objective means a person accepts the objects for what they are and only examine the actions or descriptions for accuracy and proper application.

Our passions will love descriptive language and the feelings that come with combining the concepts. It is similar to what traveling does to scenery. The old can become mundane and new combinations are exciting. It is in our nature to enjoy beautiful combinations of language and color using poetry and art. Individuals enjoy combining what’s in their own minds with the ideas of others and seeing what happens. Business works the same way. Success at going out and working the system with our own unique take and combinations is exciting. In everything there are correct combinations: colors in painting and design, grammar and understanding in poetry and writing. Ethics contain guidelines for the proper combinations of actions toward relationships and business. But these are guidelines only. Sometimes we get stalled by forgetting the joy of combinations and get stuck looking at guidelines only. This is what is meant by being legalistic. We exist to make these combinations and enjoy the fruit. When things work out poorly such as a bad business deal or painting, different combinations can be used the next time. It isn’t the objects, actions or descriptors that fail and need examined, most of the time it is the combinations. Those who live outside the mundane are apt to have more failures with combinations since they enjoy making them so well. Life contains cycles of mixing things up for fun and putting things back in order for necessity.

There is a man inside of me 

Each individual perceives things from their own unique perspective. In our minds these things are sorted out and expressed through language. We’re starting in the book “Categories” by Aristotle since it is on the foundation level for other studies. Most philosophy is written in view of the critics. The concepts are good for everyone but they can get lost in all the defensive language. Although it can be made complicated, I am going to try and present the concepts in as simple a form as possible so everyone can enjoy them. The goal is to become skillful at differentiating between sense and nonsense. It requires understanding what everyone understands commonly. This is where the concept of common sense comes from. The more a group of people have a grasp on it, the better they get along. Conflicts and abuses occur among people who refuse to question their own or their leadership’s view in the light of common sense.

When a person looks at a tree, the word “tree” comes to mind. Everyone in a community will have common words for common things. If someone calls a tree a house, the rest of the community would wonder about that person’s sanity. We associate subjects or tangible things with words. One way we do it is through image. A statue and a person can look like the same person and be called by the same name and yet due to their composition, they are actually two different things. Our minds find it easy to associate images, yet sometimes we have to differentiate the image from the actual. A word we use is “reality” for the real thing. It can be better or worse than the image. Material things come first and make impressions in our minds that we apply in conversations and thoughts. Some people are better than others at describing things but we all have a common sense that examines what is being said according to reality. This how we tell if things are exaggerated or the image matches the one in their minds.

Things that are of substance are categorized according to traits. If a person is known, there is no need to find more out through classifications. The name “mammal” will contain “humans” which will contain the individual. All mammals aren’t that particular person. But that person would be included when someone talks about mammals as a classification. We associate things in our mind through generalities that contain particulars. There is a correct application that everyone recognizes according to commonly applied traits. Something may or may not belong to the general subject when presented. Sometimes things are put into the wrong classification and others times they are correctly applied. A person differentiates according to the traits that qualify the item.

Some things are derived from a word to be classified. A horseman isn’t really a horse but a person who works with horses. This is done with a lot of words. A courageous person is derived from the word courage. So we associate things by images, groups and derivatives. When they are commonly applied and understood, people have a clear understanding of what others are actually talking about. This could be called the noun names. There are ways to describe actions and traits that affect images that we can explore. Grammar in any language seems to be based in philosophy doesn’t it? It is the vehicle to get to the bottom of truth and understanding.

There is a conversation 

Is that a star I see?

My mind is turning 

Some of these commentaries are inspired by the books I read. Presently a modern book I am reading is “Die Empty.” It is about getting the most out of life and work. If you haven’t guessed by now, I also keep a running study on the works of Aristotle that I slowly work my way through. My attitude is that if a person cannot explain it, they do not understand it. In the process of trying to explain these concepts, greater understanding reveals itself to all of us. In the last chapters of the last book in “Politics” by Aristotle, he focuses on the the best way to perpetuate a civil society and that is raising our children right.

Forming good habits and education are critical for a good society to continue. He pushed for public education to teach the basics to the youth and to keep the social fabric common. Young children need to learn good habits of thought. He advised against having children watched by slaves or people who are dependent so they don’t pick up their bad habits. In addition to practical teaching concerning reading and writing, they should also learn gymnastics and music. That way the body stays in shape and the children learn how to amuse themselves in constructive ways. He said that education is to youth what a rattle is to an infant: It should keep them amused and out of trouble.

A lot of time was spent describing the proper music and instruments for youth with the idea of steering them away from vulgarity. He says that many times we judge musicians and consider them vulgar, but it is really the listeners who are that way. Many professionals have to leave the enjoyment aspect of music and become corrupted in order to give the crowds what they want. Sounds similar to today. The point is that music should be encouraged for youth so they can use it for enjoyment as they age. Music itself is good for the discipline aspect and for enjoyment.

This is how Politics ends, discussing how best to raise the next generation. Having this as a focus is key to having a lasting and strong nation. If a nation raises their youth to be militant, other nations shouldn’t have to pay for it. Any effort on our part should be spent helping these countries out of their destructive cycles and ideologies. When we discuss rights, what produces the best future for our own families within our own civil society should be at the forefront. We form civil governments for this end. The pursuit of happiness leaves behind a generation who can do the same. When a country raises it’s youth to value freedom, work hard, and be considerate of others, they have a right to enjoy the fruit. No one should feel guilty about it. This is justice in its truest form.

The next book I am going through is Posterior Analytics. It takes quite a bit of thought to present in simple form, but it is worth a try. I hope you are up to the challenge too..